Reconceptualizing digital literacy in the AI era: A systematic review of validated frameworks from an ecological perspective

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Advances in artificial intelligence (AI) have raised debate regarding whether the existing digital literacy frameworks are outdated and have called for developing new frameworks to keep pace with the growing adoption of AI technologies. Drawing on an ecological perspective and analyzing 80 validated frameworks (69 digital literacy and 11 AI literacy) published between January 2014 and February 2025, this study explored the variation in digital literacy frameworks by comparing and contrasting their sub-dimensions, identified the commonalities and differences, using DigComp 2.2 as a reference, across developing and developed regions, and evaluated the influences of AI technologies on updating those frameworks. The results showed that, at the micro-level, educators should act as active AI partners and design AI-resilient assessments, while students are expected to be ethical, responsible AI users and learners. At the macro-level, developed regions value integrative skills like cultural norms, transversal characteristics, and mental health, whereas developing regions emphasize operational skills that AI can automate. Copyright uncertainty over AI-generated content is an added hurdle. At the chrono-level, the prevalence of AI has expanded digital literacy from safety to AI ethics, elevated higher-order thinking, and reframed communication and collaboration to include human–AI interaction. AI technologies have reshaped digital literacy frameworks, underscoring the need to prepare individuals for the AI-driven economy of the 21st century while maintaining sociocultural sensitivity.